Praxis

When do you plan to take the Praxis II exam for your subject area?
-Winter of 2011

What is the minimum score that you must earn on the exam to qualify for your initial teaching license?
-For English I need a score of 168
-I plan on getting an endorsement for Art, which needs a score of 159 and a Theater Arts endorsement, which requires a score of 600.

Look at the topics covered in your exam. What do you need to do to fully prepare for this test?

I. Literature and Understanding Text
Identifying major works and authors of American, British, World (including non-Western), and young adult literature from various cultures, genres, and periods
Paraphrasing, comparing, and interpreting (literally and inferentially) various types of print and nonprint texts, e.g., fiction, poetry, essays, drama, and graphic representations
Identifying and interpreting figurative language and other literary elements, e.g., metaphor, simile, voice, point of view, tone, style, setting, diction, mood, allusions, irony, clichés, analogy, hyperbole, personification, alliteration, and foreshadowing
Understanding how patterns, structures, and characteristics of literary forms and genres may influence the meaning and effect of a work
Situating authors and texts within their historical, cultural, and critical contexts to aid in interpretation
Recognizing and applying various strategic approaches to teaching reading, e.g., applying cueing systems, activating prior knowledge, constructing meaning through context, and employing metacognitive strategies.

II. Language and Linguistics
Understanding the principles of first- and second-language acquisition and development, including social, cultural, and historical influences and the nature of dialects
Understanding elements of the history, development, and structure of the English language, including linguistic change, etymology, and processes of word formation
Understanding and applying the conventions of grammar, mechanics, and usage, e.g., syntax, sentence types, sentence structure, parts of speech, modifiers, phrases and clauses, capitalization, and punctuation
Understanding the elements of semantics, e.g., ambiguity, euphemism, connotation, and jargon, and how these elements affectmeaning

III. Composition and Rhetoric
Understanding and applying elements of teaching writing, including
Individual and collaborative approaches to teaching writing, e.g., stages of writing processes (prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, publishing, evaluating) and how those stages work recursively
Tools and response strategies for assessing student writing, e.g., peer review, portfolios, holistic scoring, scoring rubrics, self-assessment, and conferencing
Common research and documentation techniques, e.g., gathering and evaluating data, using electronic and print media, and citing sources
Understanding and evaluating rhetorical features in writing, including
Purposes for writing and the nature of the audience within varying contexts
Organization in writing, including creating and maintaining coherence
Strategies for the organization, development, and presentation of print, electronic, and visual media
Discourse aims, e.g., creative, expository, persuasive
Methods of argument and types of appeals, e.g., analogy, extended metaphor, allusion, and appeals to logic or emotion
Style, tone, voice, and point of view as part of rhetorical strategy
Recognition of bias and fallacies, distinctions between fact and opinion, and identification of stereotypes, inferences, and assumptions

Look at the sample questions for your exam. Can you answer them?
-I did pretty well with the sample question and got almost all of them right. I am worried about the books I haven’t read and the authors I’m not familiar with. I definitely need to study!!

When do you plan to take the Praxis II PLT?
-I’ll take this the summer of 2012.

Look at the topics covered on the Praxis II PLT exam. Compare them with the Table of Contents in our textbook and your syllabi/textbooks for any other Education classes you have taken/are taking. What do you need to do as a student to prepare for this exam?
-The categories are students as learners, instruction and assessment, teacher professionalism, students as learners, and communication techniques. These are really close to the class subjects they we have in the education program. I’m glad I’ll already have studied all of these areas, but I know I’ll still need to study a lot. This also strengthens my resolve to keep all my textbooks.

Look at the sample essay and multiple choice questions for the PLT. How does this preview of the test change your perspective of your coursework and how you study?
-This worries me a bit. I find that most of the standardized tests that have essay questions like this almost always default to a score of 2. It is both hard to know exactly what they are looking for and deep down I don’t think they want to give 3’s. This will be hard to study for because it is from a vast well of information and each essay could fill volumes, which is a problem of mine. I have a hard time writing concisely and tend to go on and on hoping to touch on the elements the person scoring is looking for.

Standardized Testing...GRRRRR...

I don’t like any standardized test that I’ve run across so far. They really stress out the kids and don’t seem to reflect everyone’s strengths. Some kids do great with this type of testing, while many (I would say most) have a hard time taking these. I believe standardized testing has an unhealthy hold over our current educational system, and it may be getting worse. The idea that teacher pay may be based on how students do on this test will just make everyone crazy. Why not open up school choice and let each school compete for students. Parents will chose the schools that best educate their students. This certainly isn’t the only answer, and I see the need to assess schools, students, and teachers on a national level, but this isn’t it!


CRT – ELA English Language Art. This will be taken by all my junior high and high school students at the end of the year. There is a reading and writing portion of this test.

DWA – This is the big writing test that my eighth graders have to take. I worked a lot with my students to prepare for this test. I am really unhappy that this is switching to computer-based scoring. I just don’t understand how they can use the six traits to rate the essays, and then turn it over to a compute to judge things like ideas and voice. I’ve done some research on this one, and there are things that I think make a less interesting essay, such as “In conclusion” in the final paragraph, but it will give a student a higher score in the organization category. The good thing is that it isn’t a very time-consuming test and most students are pretty relaxed completing it.

IOWA – This will affect my all 8th graders at the start of the year and it covers both reading and language arts.

NAEP- This also has a reading and language arts portion for the 8th graders. A sample of students are chosen through the sate to participate in this test.

UPASS – All students from grades 3-12 have to take this at the end of year. It rates the overall status of a school.


UBSCT – I hate this test. It seems ridiculous and the information is confusing. The students are only expected to know half the information because it is just a norm-based test, but it is extremely discouraging for the students to feel they are missing so many questions. They are used to knowing what they are being tested on and even if they reach the goal of knowing half, that still feels like they’re failing. I have witnessed kids melting down over this one.

Types of Assessment

Assessment Types:
Observations:

Generally this is an informal assessment type because there isn’t a specific moment of performance. It lends itself well to formative assessment because you will have an overall sense of how each student is doing, but not specifically enough to grade or award points to. I think this is an essential part of judging students mastery. Walking around the classroom and seeing how well the students accomplish tasks and assignments is very valid and will often tell you more about how much they know than the papers they turn in. Because you are examining the information the students know, it is criterion-reference, unless you are trying to judge which students know the most and the least, which would only be appropriate if you are looking to divide the class into groups that need additional review and groups that can move on to other subjects. It also give them a chance to ask question and fill in any information gaps. If it is used as a formative assessment it is both fair and reliable because the students aren’t being penalized for what they don’t know, but the purpose it to see the gaps and fix them in your lesson plans. It certainly isn’t a complicated process, so I think it is a very practical type. If it was summative I don’t believe it would be very valid, reliable, or fair, because so much would depend on the moment that you interact with that student. The only time this seems like it could be used a a good summative assessment would be if you were watching only that student, with no other distractions and they had a very specific task to accomplish. This would usually fall under the performance assessment heading.

Self-assessments:

This would be an informal assessment type. It gives the student an opportunity to reflect what he or she does and doesn’t know. If it is used as a summative assessment it is not dependable or fair because the temptation to “fix” answers would be too strong. The honest students would actually be penalized over the dishonest ones. It needs to be just a chance to check progress. I do think it is valid if it demonstrates the holes in the students’ knowledge base. Like all assessments, it needs to be well constructed so it is a valid reflection of a students understanding. This can be practical, but it does take some work to make it meaningful.

Peer-assessments:

Peer-assessment has to be an informal formative assessment because fellow students aren’t qualified to judge how well an entire concept has been learned. It also leads to students being “graded” by how popular they are or how many friends they have in class. Even with formative assessment that can happen. In those cases it isn’t fair, dependable, or valid. It is possible to make this a relevant formative assessment, but the teacher needs to be extremely clear on how to rate a project or paper and model what type of comments are helpful and appropriate. I really don’t love peer-assessment because I think kids with special challenges are humiliated and most often the comments have nothing to do with the quality of the work. This type should be criterion based, but I think its weakness is that it becomes norm based as the kids compare each work to another. If there is a handout with very specific questions that aren’t about the assignment being good or bad, but about how clear the details are or questions that the audience may be left with, that can work.

Projects (things students make ABOUT the topic - e.g., posters, research papers, etc.):

This work really well as summative projects. If the project is constructed to incorporate research, analysis, and reflection, it is a great way to see how a student understands a subject. It is a formal assessment because the students are aware this it is being graded and are working with a list of requirements or a rubric. It also can be formative if it is used as a way for the students to take the information they have been given so far and then lead to other paths their interests may follow. The key to making projects valid assessments of what a student knows is by being very clear with what the expectations are. The teacher needs to include a rubric and an example of what the expected quality is. Its weakness is that there can be students who really know their stuff, but aren’t willing to put any effort into the project. Their grade now reflects effort instead of knowledge. This also can turn from criterion based to norm based if you judge each work against the best project. A good rubric can prevent this. It can be practical if your rubric is easy to use, but often it does take more time to grade than a straight pencil-and-paper test.

Performances (things students do WITH the topic - e.g., conducting a debate, running a mile, creating a meal plan, analyzing a poem, etc.):

This is very similar to project assessment. The uses, strengths, and weaknesses are very much the same. The only additional concern is that very shy students often do poorly in performance or even refuse to participate. A teacher needs to be sensitive to the fact that performance anxiety can be crippling for some students. If that affects a student’s grade, the performance assessment is no longer fair, valid, or reliable.

Portfolios:

Porfolios are by their nature a formal summative assessment. Its purpose is to show the students work in many different forms. I really like the idea of portfolios for the same reason I like projects. I think students can really tailor their portfolios to the way the most enjoy expressing themselves. It also shows a student’s development over a period of time. Just like projects, the portfolios have the problem of being driven by a student’s effort, rather than his or her knowledge-base. A good rubric will also help this type stay criterion based, instead of morphing into a norm based assessment. Some students also have organizational issues and have a very hard time keeping track of past work. This issue could make the grading less valid and fair. Portfolios are less practical than other methods because it takes a lot of effort to review and grade. Like projects and performances, it is essential to have a well-written rubric for the students to reference and the teacher to grade with.

Tests:

Tests are a formal formative and summative assessment. The students have no questions about what the purpose of the exercise is and know they will be graded in some way. This can be either criterion based, if the grade is based on how many right out of a total number of answers, or norm based if it is graded by a bell-curve or if the purpose of the test is to show how the students compared against the rest of their age-group. I don’t like giving test very often because there is a definite “process” to taking tests. Often the kids who do best on tests aren’t the ones who know the most, but are the ones who know how to play the game better. There are a lot of students who have test anxiety and the stress makes their brain go into flight or fight mode and shut down. If a student doesn’t naturally communicate through writing, they can have real difficulty in traditional testing. These three issues can affect the validity, fairness, and reliability of this type of assessment. It is hard to completely eliminate testing from a class, and it can be one of the ways a student can show what they know, but it shouldn’t be the only means of assessment.

A Multicultural Education

There is a relatively small amount of cultural diversity in the school that I teach at and the same is true of my classroom. It is not a “monoculture” as is mentioned in the book, but it isn’t far from it. I have never had any ESL kids, but there are several first generation students. Currently I have one family where the mother is Korean. In another the Mother is Mexican and the father is Egyptian by way of Mexico. I have several Native American and Polynesian students as well. With all these kids I have to make sure there is no teasing or intentional or unintentional racist comments. It is a fine line between friendly banter and demonstrating prejudice. Just pointing out that certain comments are unacceptable in my classroom, which has a no insults or put down rule, can help accomplish what Moreno calls, “prejudice reduction.” By doing this I also am able to crate a safe and caring atmosphere, one of the characteristics of effective multicultural teacher in the textbook.

Because there is so little diversity in the student body, it is essential that I use content integration with my curriculum. Moreno defines this concept as “the extent to which teachers use examples and content from a variety of cultures in their teaching.” The concept of being a world citizen is part of my school’s mission statements and it affects many aspects of how we teach.

When I make decisions about novels to read, I try to make sure minority voices are well represented. During Utah Studies the history teacher included the experiences of many of the minority ethnic groups that helped shape Utah, as well as its Pioneer heritage. We did a whole unit on the Topaz internment camp, read a book about a child’s experience living there, and went to Topaz to tour the actual site. This lead to long discussions about what it meant to be Japanese in America during World War II, and how discrimination affected their lives.

The Junior High students’ big trip this year is going to Kaizan, Mexico, to work at an local orphanage. This will be many students’ first out-of-country experience and we want to make it one where they are connecting to the citizens of the country instead of just being tourists. The whole high school has opportunities to go on international trips each year, including Turkey, India, and Guatemala. All these help with content integration. Moreno states, “The ultimate goal of this approach is to help students develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function within their culture, other cultures, and the global community. “

Another way this international focus helps the students is by giving them a chance to examine knowledge construction. Because we spend a significant percentage of our curriculum talking about different cultures, the students are forced to examine their own beliefs and cultural assumptions. We ask the questions about how history is recorded and who decides what is history. The students have to ask themselves how two opposite groups may view the same historical event differently. I really like how the text states that all teachers need to “discuss issues of equity, prejudice, and bias because social issues are likely to permeate the classroom conversation.”

There is a large cultural gulf present in the school in Utah. There is a majority religious group that often forgets that the entire population doesn’t share the same beliefs. I find that teachers have to be very careful that the students who are not LDS don’t feel awkward in the classroom. I have students who are Hari Krishna and they often feel left out when their peers use Christian terminology and cultural references in the classroom. I have to be sure that these students, as well as students who are atheists, Evangelical, and Unitarian all feel equally recognized and acknowledged.

Multiple Intelligences Test

I never feel like these tests are very accurate for me. I am an extremely visual person, but I also am very slightly dyslexic, so it makes directions and puzzles really difficult for me. Because of these two elements my visual/spacial learner score tends to come in fairly low, when I know this is a way I learn and perform best. I guess it is interesting to see this in chart form, but I just don’t think forty questions are enough to get a good glimpse at our individual strengths and weaknesses.

I do like Garner’s intelligences because it gives equal respect to all types of “smarts.” I like that the linguistic and mathematical intelligences aren’t seen as the only way to be gifted. My concern is that it could turn into a myth like being right-brained or left-brained. I think individuals can move through these different intelligences all in the same task and it can be so subtle that you are not aware of how many different intelligences you are using. There is a certain danger using labels, but I am grateful how this theory has brought changes to the conversation about what it means to be smart.

I think using the cluster note taking technique is a better way for me to explore a text since it certainly felt more natural than the more systematic and linear approaches I have used in the past. I do love words, and my chart has a high linguistic score. I think exploring the meaning of words beyond just basic vocabulary level is a good way for me to understand a topic. Teaching a subject comes naturally and is also another good way to study (and is part of the four R’s).

I might use this test for my students, but I would try to find one that has more questions and goes a little more in-depth with the subtleties of each type of intelligence. It would be a good tool to link into studying techniques. It can give insights about how to differentiate lesson plans so the students who struggle can receive specialized instruction. I think it is important that the students know that these percentages of intelligent strengths will change in their lifetimes. When they are fourteen their highest intelligence may be kinesthetic, but when they are twenty linguistic intelligence may be the strongest. Because our brains are always changing and developing, we can’t see any type of label as static.

Course Contract Review #1

1) I think I’m doing okay with the blogs. I enjoy writing and I feel very connected to the subjects we have covered so far. I like class and feel comfortable participating and think my fellow classmates have a lot of very interesting comments.

2) I’m not doing well when I rush things. I didn’t look to the bottom of the notes assignment to read the reflection section, even though it was very obvious and the rubric was very clear. I think I’m in a bit of a panic over the perceived work load and it’s making my brain a little fuzzy. Judy Willis would say that I’m in a flight or fight mode instead of a relaxed state that is receptive for learning. I’m also still too focused on grades and need to concentrate on mastery goals.

3) I’m progressing on the time management issues, but I’m still not using Google Calendar like I should. I’m trying to set up my iGoogle page to help with organization, but I must use it daily to keep up with things. It’s a start, but I’m a long way from being where I want to be. I am feeling dedicated to using my available time wisely. I know that there isn’t a moment to lose this summer!

4) To create the changes I need I have to go to iGoogle first thing in the morning. This needs to be my ritual. On that site I have to check my To Do list and my calendar, which needs to be updated daily. I need to use the cluster note taking as I do my reading. I really did find it useful and more natural than other techniques that I’ve used in the past. I need to slow down and read my instructions twice. I can’t assume that I remember what is required.

5) My motivation is okay. There are a lot of stresses outside of school that I am trying to process, and it is affecting my general motivation. I need to find the subjects that I am studying as welcome breaks instead of heavy burdens. I really do like every class that I’m taking and I can’t lose sight of the fact that this stuff is fascinating and extremely relevant to my teaching. If I can keep sight of that I won’t stress about every little grade, but analyze ways to incorporate what I’m learning into my teaching approach. I’m not really on the right track at the moment, but I hope to change that.

Judy Willis Rocks!

What:
I read about Judy Willis. She is a neuroscientist who saw the discrepancy between what science taught about the biology of learning and what methods were actually being used in the classroom. Recognizing the need, she decided to go into teaching to find a bridge between the two disciplines. She now teaches in a Santa Barbara middle school and publishes her findings in books and magazines.

So What:
Her technique is known as RAD, which stands for reach (Reticular Activating System), attitude (Amygdala), and develop (Dopamine). Her research has found that the best way to teach a subject is to create a lesson that is interesting and relevant. This encourages the reticular activating system to allow the information into the frontal lobes where it can be analyzed and remembered. The amygdala helps control the emotions in the brain and these emotions either block or open the way to the process of learning. If a student is stressed the brain is stuck in flight or fight mode and can’t properly process data. If the materials is perceived as pleasurable, the brain releases dopamine which helps the learning process. The more fun an activity is, the more the brain is open to learning what that activity is teaching. Clearly, how the brain learns and how to best optimize brain function has obvious applications in the classroom.

Now What:
I am now a Judy Willis fan. I have to read at least one of her books so I can get all the details about her research. I will definitely steal many of the techniques she mentioned in a video interview in the website.

I love how she suggested teachers have the students guess what is going to be on the test as a fun prediction exercise. This way they study the materials, but it’s also a game to see how right they were in their guesses. Some of the questions the students come up with could actually be used in the test. What a great idea! I’ve jig-sawed test review and had groups of students be the experts and teach and review the subjects for the rest of the class, but haven’t been terribly happy with the results. I really like adding in the element of fun and can see how this would make a difference! I try really hard to make all of my assignments fun and always create my own worksheets because I think most are completely boring. This inspires me that I’m on the right path, and I need to push it even further.

This also makes me feel better about “question of the day” that has taken a life of its own in my junior high classroom. I started this as a way to engage my students. Some examples are: “What business would you like to run?” or “What is the strangest pet you have ever heard of?” The kids love the question of the day, but it takes up a huge chunk of time. I’ve skipped a few days when there has been a lot of material to cover, and the kids were very upset. The first thing they ask when they get in to class is “what is the question of the day?” Now I can see that the release of dopamine that they get from this activity is a great way to open them up to learning. By making the start of every class pleasurable the better their brains are functioning.

My Motivation, My Successes, and My Failures

What motivates me is the desire to know what is going to help my every-day teaching. Being a better teacher means having a better day. It means students who are learning and engaged. If I want teaching to be a positive experience then I better get as much information about how to accomplish that goal. This is my intrinsic motivation.

I would consider this both a mastery goal and a performance goal. Each lesson is a type of performance but it is guided by a larger mastery goal and ability. If I’m not a good teacher there really is no reason for me to teach. There are many other careers that I have experience in, but I chose this because I think it is the most important job I can do.

I hate to admit that grades really matter to me right now. I don’t know if it comes with age, from many years of encouraging my kids to get good grades, or being a teacher myself, but I really want to get an “A.” I recognize that this is an extrinsic motivation.

When I succeed I don’t let time control me, but I control my time. I recognize that no matter how busy I may be, I have self-determination and can find a way to make room for what is important. It is a struggle for me to stay organized, but it is essential if I want to reach my goals.

When I fail it’s usually because I’m rushing and I don’t read instructions properly. I also have a problem taking on too much. This can lead to serious time-management problems. I have the opposite of learned-helplessness which could be labeled as an expected-control where I get extremely frustrated with myself when I underperform or things don’t go the way I had hoped. This difficulty with letting go of minor mistakes is also a type of failure.

The fact that grades matter as much as they do can definitely get in the way of the big picture of what I am learning. If I let my extrinsic motivation eclipse my intrinsic one I can easily miss the purpose of a lesson. I have got to dig deeply into the essential material that will make a difference in my teaching.

I also need to find a way to connect to the material we are learning, whether it is a situational interest and I am just newly introduced to it, or if it is a dispositional interest and I’ve always found it fascinating. By finding a way to learn with passion and engagement I will be able to teach with passion and engagement, no matter the subject and even if it isn’t something I naturally connect to. I think this ability is what makes the difference between a competent teacher and a great one.

Why I Teach and Why UVU

I am here studying to be an English teacher because of a school called Walden School of Liberal Arts. Ten years ago I couldn’t have envisioned myself as a high school teacher. I had and still have a huge issue with the direction of our public schools today. As a result of these very strong feelings, I homeschooled my children for eight years. I didn’t know if it was possible to have a public school that fostered imagination and individuality and didn’t place obedience before education. As time passed I felt homeschooling wasn’t meeting my children’s needs as fully as I hoped, so I started a small private school that bridged homeschooling and secondary school. This adventure only lasted one year, and I thought I was going to have to start a charter school that had a mission statement that made sense to me. I believed there was something better than what was being offered.

I was thrilled when I discovered Walden. The rooms were filled with couches, tables, and beanbags. The walls were covered with student art and photographs of past trips. The kids were welcome in all parts of the school and the students seemed to feel ownership of their space. It had the feel of a clubhouse geared toward learning rather than an institution. The mission statement was all about mentoring, student self-discovery, a peace curriculum, and traveling to become a world citizen. I knew I had found my school.

I had experience teaching English in both my private school and a homeschooling cooperative. The director needed someone to come in and work with a group of reluctant writers and it went very well. I was invited to teach there full time with the understanding that I would work towards my teaching certificate as soon as possible. So here I am at UVU, racing towards an English Secondary Education degree and a teaching certificate. UVU is close to both my home and Walden. I have so many differences with the philosophical and theological policies at BYU I can’t go back to my original alma mater. I have been happy with my UVU professors, my program, and the end is in sight.

I can’t imagine teaching anywhere else and if I had to move or the school closed down I would have to search for a charter school with a similar philosophy or start one of my own. I’m certainly not teaching for the money. I’ve worked for Disney both as an employee and a freelance sculptor and made three times as much money for half the effort. I teach as a form of activism. I want our traditional educational model to change, and change drastically. I have found a school that is making a difference in the lives of its students and in the world at large. That is worth my time and efforts and that is why I teach.

Course Contract

I have the goal to better understand my students’ developmental stages. I currently teach in mixed grade classes, both with junior high and high school, and I am not sure I am always creating curriculum that is appropriate for all the kids in that I am trying to reach.

I will reach this goal by closely reading the sections of our textbooks that relate to this subject. I will both mark the book and create flash cards and/or organizational charts that include both vocabulary and concepts. It is important that I reflect on real-world experiences that I’ve come across while teaching. As often as possible, I will include a few additional sentences that refer to past students or past situations.

I want to feel confident in the tests and assessments that I create. I need to learn how to better carry out pre-assessments, assessments, and summative assessments. I think I avoid testing partially because I think traditional testing is over-used, but also because I haven’t figured how to make it reflect the students’ knowledge base.

I will put an appropriate amount of time towards our assessment assignments. It is extremely important I don’t rush through, but work deliberately and carefully. When scheduling this homework, I need to break it down into smaller parts so it doesn’t all blur together. I will try to use actual classes that I have taught to be the starting point for these assessment examples. I need to ask questions if I am at all unsure of how to accomplish these projects.

I want to stay organized and on top of the assignments in this class. This is a very busy summer for me and I’m trying to view it as the Olympics of time-management.

I really have to use Google calendar very faithfully. I am going to add in electronic post-it notes and to do list as well. There will be very specific times that I will set aside of homework in general and this homework specifically. Right now it is looking like Monday, Wednesday, and Friday from 1:00-1:30 and 5:00-6:00 are times best dedicated to this course. I can not get behind in the reading, and need to take notes simultaneously since I won’t have time to go back and review the entire chapter. The same is true of flashcards and mnemonics, which are usually part of my study techniques.

If I don’t understand a topic I will research it on the internet. I really enjoy researching new topics, and often get obsessed with getting all the details on a concept. I really like the UVU library online site, especially the Academic Journal Premier database. The trick is to not loose too much time researching tangents, but stay focused on the question at hand. Another good tool is to use the “get connected” sections of the book that will lead to additional assignments that have real-world applications. Often researchers and philosophers are mentioned in the textbook and their work can be examined from original sources.